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Fig.  42.     Textile  Pattern-.      Italian  and  Spanish   Brocades 
XVIII  Century;  the  Others  Early  XVI 


Floral  Design. 


THEORY   AND   PRACTICE 

OF 

TEACHING   ART 


BY 

ARTHUR  WESLEY  DOW 

PROFESSOR  OF  FINE  ARTS  IN  TEACHERS  COLLEGE 
COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 

/$/  z  / 


[Reprinted,  with  Additional  Plates,  from    Teachers  College 
Record,  Vol.  IX,  No.  3,   May,   1908] 


UNIV   Of  SAUf  ORNiA 
SOUTHERN  BRANCH 


PUBLISHED  BY 
TEACHERS  COLLEGE 

COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 
NEW  YORK 


\  5  \     L  \ 


o 


TRAINING  IN  THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE 
OF  TEACHING  ART 


INTRODUCTION 

/e/2.  i 

The  Purpose  of  Art  Teaching 

The  true  purpose  of  art  teaching  is  the  education  of  the  whole    u- 
people  for  appreciation 

A  training  that  calls  for  a  very  direct  exercise  of  the  critical 
powers, 'developing  judgment  and  skill,  is  a  training  that  will  in- 
crease the  individual's  efficiency  whatever  his  calling  may  be. 

The  general  public  has  not  thought  of  art  education  in  this 
way,  but  has  acknowledged  the  value  of  "drawing,"  especially 
when  it  can  serve  some  utilitarian  purpose. 

A  better  understanding  of  the  true  usefulness  of  art  recog- 
'  nizes  creative  power  as  a  divine  gift,  the  natural  endowment  of 
every  human  soul,  showing  itself  at  first  in  the  form  that  we  call 
appreciation.  This  appreciation  leads  a  certain  number  to  produce 
actual  works  of  art,  greater  or  lesser, — perhaps  a  temple,  perhaps 
only  a  cup — but  it  leads  the  majority  to  desire  finer  form  and 
more  harmony  of  tone  and  color  in  surroundings  and  things  for 
daily  use.  It  is  the  individual's  right  to  have  full  control  of  these 
powers. 

Even  from  the  economic  side,  that  education  is  deficient  which 
leaves  one  unable  to  judge  of  form  and  color  when  he  is  con- 
stantly required  to  use  such  judgment.  This  lack  of  appreciation 
is  responsible  for  an  immense  waste  of  labor,  skill  and  money  in 
the  production  of  useless  and  ugly  things.  Works  of  fine  art 
stand  among  the  things  which  the  world  prizes  most  highly.  A 
nation's  ideals  are  revealed  in  its  art.  and  its  art  has  greatest  value 
when  it  is  the  expression  of  the  spirit  of  the  whole  people. 

In  a  sympathetic  public  is  found  the  life-giving  influence  which 


2  Training  in   Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art 

creates  works  of  fine  art,  and  the  measure  of  their  excellence 
is  the  measure  of  the  nation's  appreciation. 

The  attainment  of  such  an  end  as  this  places  public  art  educa- 
tion above  a  mere  training  in  drawing,  painting  or  modelling, 
and  above  the  so-called  practical  applications.  ,  The  work  must 
be  organized  for  a  steady  growth  in  good  judgment  as  to  form, 
tone,  and  color,  through  all  grades  from  the  kindergarten  to  the 
university.  The  main  question  at  all  stages  is  whether  the  art 
work  of  the  school  is  making  this  good  red  blood  of  appreciation 
and  giving  to  the  individual  the  greatest  possible  encouragement 
to  express  himself. 

Academic  Art  Teaching 

Artists  themselves,  when  by  their  works  they  can  hold  the 
attention  of  the  people,  become  the  teachers  of  the  people,  in  a 
large  sense.  But  when  there  is  need  of  well  defined  methods  of 
teaching  for  general  use  in  public  schools,  the  artist  if  asked  for 
help  will  naturally  suggest  the  means  by  which  he  obtained  his 
professional  training.  The  public  will  also  look  to  the  art  school 
for  direction,  or  at  least  for  a  theory.  Unless  the  professional 
people  have  recognized  the  necessity  of  general  culture  in  art, 
and  have  thoroughly  studied  the  conditions,  the  probability  is  that 
they  will  offer  only  a  modification  of  what  we  will  call  "academic" 
teaching.  This  has  been  the  case  in  large  measure  and  art  edu- 
cation has  not  advanced  equally  with  general  education. 

Since  the  days  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  the  main  effort  in  art 
teaching  'has  been  toward  representation.  Before  that  period  the 
main  purpose  was  the  creation  of  harmony.  Under  the  influ- 
ences of  the  later  Renaissance,  representative  drawing  has  been 
given  an  importance  far  beyond  its  real  deserts. 

If  the  fundamental  principle  of  academic  art  teaching  could 
be  stated  in  a  phrase,  it  would  be  "First,  learn  to  draw." — refer- 
ring to  accurate  representation.  Naturally  the  methods  and  prin- 
ciples of  the  professional  art  school  have  been  copied  in  formu- 
lating courses  for  public  school  teaching.  Hence  we  find  repre- 
sentation holding  the  chief  place  in  art  courses  under  the  various 
names  of  freehand  drawing,  light  and  shade,  mass  painting,  etc. 

The  followers  of  the  academic  ideal  relegated  design  to  a 
secondarv  place  under  the  term  "decorative  art,"  and  sought  to 


Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art  3 

explain  the  beauty  of  design  by  an  analysis  of  historic  styles. 
Courses  in  design  became  a  study  of  styles,  just  as  courses  in 
drawing  became  a  study  of  nature. 

The  effort  of  the  academic  method  is  centered  upon  "learning 
to  draw,"  and  in  two  directions :  nature  forms,  and  historic  art. 
The  principle  is — first  acquire  a  knowledge  of  facts,  either  of 
nature's  facts  or  art's  facts,  then  use  them  in  your  own  creative 
expression.  Roughly  outlined,  courses  in  art  would  be  based  upon 
a  scheme  like  this  : 


'  Representation 


Academic 
method 


Design. 


Drawing    from    casts 
and    other    objects 

Perspective 


Pencil  drawing 
Pen  drawing 
Charcoal  line  drawing 
Brush  drawing,  etc. 


Light  and  shade 

Color    study,    from  f  Charcoal 
nature {  Water  color 

Painting  '  0l1 

Picture  study 
Composition,    inciden- 
tal 


'  Historic  ornament 
Structure  of  pattern 
Perspective 
Color  exercises 
Wash  drawing 
Composition,  in  some 
style  or  period 


It  is  true  that  individual  teachers  vary  this  program,  intro- 
ducing other  elements  and  combining  both  representation  and  de- 
sign in  one  course,  but  in  the  main  the  effort  goes  to  the  acquir- 
ing of  facts  and  knowledge  out  of  which  appreciation  may  grow 
somehow,  if  indeed  the  matter  is  considered  at  all.  Such  an  aim 
as  this  is  too  uncertain  and  inadequate.  The  work  does  not  tend 
to  original  expression.  It  is  a  partial  education,  leaving  the  pupil 
without  sufficient  grasp  upon  the  essentials. 


4  Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art 

Synthetic  Teaching 

If  we  regard  the  purpose  of  art  instruction  to  be  the  develop- 
ment of  power,  it  is  evident  that  our  whole  scheme  of  teaching 
must  be  radically  different  from  that  outlined  above.  A  possible 
progression  for  courses  in  art  is  suggested  in  observing  how  the 
4fre  creative  force  has  expressed  itself,  from  the  beginning  in  rude 
rhythms,  to  the  supreme  art  works  of  the  world. 

Comparison  of  the  fine  arts,  as  to  structure,  shows  that  a  few 
fundamental  ideas  are  common  to  them  all.1  Investigation  of 
methods  of  teaching  other  arts  will  suggest  at  least  a  theory  of 
procedure  in  the  case  of  the  space  arts. 

Having  discovered  what  are  the  elements  and  basic  principles 
the  first  step  is  an  effort  to  create  with  them,  be  it  only  a  harmony 
of  two  or  three  lines  or  spots.  From  this  one  proceeds  in  suc- 
cessive steps  up  to  compositions  of  great  complexity — the  design, 
the  sculptured  group,  the  building,  or  the  picture, — using  nature's 
facts  and  historic  knowledge,  acquiring  skill  of  hand  and  ac- 
curacy of  vision,  employing  every  possible  aid  to  strong  and  clear 
expression. 

Skill  in  drawing  will  now  be  sought  as  a  means  of  expression, 
not  considered  as  an  end  in  itself.  Historic  styles  will  now  serve 
as  examples  of  harmony,  not  as  mere  models. 

The  earlier  and  more  elementary  part  of  such  a  course  is  from 
its  general  nature  suited  to  the  public  schools  and  to  all  classes  of 
students.  The  later  problems  are  naturally  those  of  the  specialist, 
the  teacher  and  the  professional  artist. 

The  Art  Language 

In  the  space  arts  the  elements  are  but  three: 

Line — the  boundary  of  a  space. 

Dark-and-Light — or  mass,  or  quantity  of  light. 

Color — or  quality  of  light. 

These  constitute  a  language  for  all  forms  of  space-art  whether 
representative  or  decorative ;  architectural,  sculptural  or  pictorial. 
There  is  no  necessity  for  any  two-fold  division  into  representa- 
tion and  design.  Design  is  rather  the  very  beginning,  the  primer 
of  art,  and  there  is  one  sense  in  which  all  good  space-art  may  be 
called  design. 

1  The   Genesis   of  Art    Form,   by   George   Lansing    Raymond. 


Training  in   Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art  5 

Under  the  heading  of  Line  may  be  grouped  all  kinds  of  line 
harmony,  beauty  of  contour,  proportion  of  spaces,  relations  of 
size, — all  drawing,  whether  representative  or  decorative. 

Under  Dark-and-Light,  elementary  and  advanced  tone  study, 
painting,  composition, of  masses;  in  architecture,  patterns  and  pic- 
tures. 

Under  Color,  the  theory  of  color,  relations  of  hue,  dark  and 
light  color  and  intensity, — color  harmony. 

The  natural  sequence  in  the  use  of  this  three-fold  language 
would  be:  1.  Line,  2.  Dark  and  Light,  3.  Color.  It  seems  best  to 
begin  with  Line  but  there  should  be  no  rigid  division.  It  is  quite 
possible  to  begin  with  Color,  or  even  with  all  three  of  the  elements, 
provided  the  progression  is  maintained,  and  the  appreciation  of 
harmony  be  the  main  purpose. 

As  this  method  of  teaching  approaches  art  from  the  side  of 
composition,  it  may  be  called  the  Synthetic  Method,  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  academic,  which  is  analytic. 

A  course  of  study  from  this  point  of  view  would  be  based  upon 
an  outline  something  like  this  : 


Synthetic 
Method 


LINE 


DARK 

and 
LIGHT 


Spacing,  Line   structure 
Character  of  line,  expression 
Principles  of  Design 
Composition  of  line 
Representation 

(  Massing,  Values 

I   Qualjty  of  tone 
Composition  of  Dark-and-Light 
Light  and   shadow  in   representation 


Drawing 
and 

Modelling 


Hue,  Value,  Intensity 
\   Color  harmony 


Painting 


COLOR     j   Color  composition 


6  Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art 

COURSES 

Two  things  are  essential  to  success  in  any  form  of  work  in 
the  space  arts. 

^  i.  Appreciation  of  harmony  of  line,  mass  and  color,  whether 
in  Architecture,  Pictures,  Sculpture,  Design,  or  Nature. 

2.  Ability  to  express  ideas  in  terms  of  harmonious  line,  mass 
and  color. 

Under  these  two  heads  may  be  grouped  all  studies  in  the 
theory  and  history  of  art,  and  all  the  various  forms  of  training 
for  hand  and  eye.  The  courses  of  the  Department  of  Fine  Arts 
of  Teachers  College  are  planned  for  a  progressive  growth  in  ap- 
preciation and  power  of  expression,  developing  freedom  and 
skill  in  drawing,  painting,  modelling  and  construction.  The  work 
is  intended  to  be  primarily  an  exercise  of  the  mind,  aiming  for 
power  rather  than  a  superficially  pleasing  result.  In  fact  the 
student's  work  might  be  far  from  what  is  ordinarily  considered  a 
successful  drawing  and  yet  the  individual  has  made  a  genuine 
and  decided  advance  in  artistic  power.  Unusual  creative  genius 
will  often  express  itself  in  terms  seemingly  rude.  Accuracy  and 
finish  in  execution  certainly  have  great  value,  but  more  important 
is  the  personal  feeling,  the  fresh  individual  way  of  expressing 
ideas  in  art-form. 

The  Junior  or  first  year  courses  are  devoted  to  principles  of 
line  composition,  spacing,  values  and  color  harmony,  with  ex- 
tensive studio  practice  in  drawing,  modelling,  painting  and  de- 
signing. 

The  Senior  or  second  year  is  given  to  special  work  in  three 
general  divisions : 

a.  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art ;  Supervision  of  Art 
Instruction. 

b.  Advanced  Drawing  and  Painting,  with  life  model ;  com- 
position of  pictures  ;  illustration  ;  landscape  painting. 

c.  House  Decoration  ;  advanced  design. 

Note.  —  For  information  as  to  admission,  required  work  for  the  degree  and  diploma, 
description  of  fundamental  courses  in  education,  and  all  matters  of  organization, 
see    Teachers    College    Announcement. 


1 

Sj 

s 

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1 

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Fig.    15.     Two   Grays 


Fig.  3.     Door,  in   Perspective  ;  Freehand  Drawing 


.         ---  —  ■  — 


,-•' 


Spacing    and    Dark-and-Light.      Original    Designs    for    Boxes    with    Metal 
Corners  and    Key-plates 


Training  in  Theory  and, Practice  of  Teaching  Art 


DESCRIPTION    OF    COURSES    AND    EXPLANATION 

OF  PLATES 

Fine  Arts  5-6.     Principles  of  Design.    9  hours  per  week. 

Fine  Arts  17-18.  Design  in  Construction  and  Decoration.  6 
hours  per  week. 

These  classes  meet  together  for  the  lecture  and  class  criticism, 
but  work  in  separate  studios. 

5-6  is  a  course  for  teachers,  painters  and  general  students. 

17-18  is  for  designers  and  craftsmen. 

Spacing  or  the  kind  of  beauty  created  by  arranging  lines  and 
spaces,  is  the  first  subject  considered.  There  are  many  ways  of 
beginning  a  study  of  spacing,  but  Fig.    1   illustrates  one  series. 


nl 


Fig.   1.     Spacing.     Practice  with  Japanese  Brush 


8  Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art 

These  exercises  in  line  spacing  show  that  great  variety  of  ex- 
pression is  possible  even  with  a  simple  group  of  straight  lines. 
By  arranging  sets  in  a  square,  a  unit  is  constructed.  In  making 
many  of  these  units  and  selecting  the  best,  the  student  is  forced 
to  use  his  appreciative  powers  and  a  certain  amount  of  invention. 
The  effort  must  be  toward  making  a  fine  arrangement;  mere  dif- 
ference of  spacing  would  have  no  art  value. 

Drawing.    Use  of  the  Japanese  Brush 

First,  rough  sketches  in  charcoal.  Then  drawing  the  lines 
with  the  Japanese  brush  and  ink — either  directly  over  the  charcoal 
lines,  or  on  Japanese  paper.  All  work  must  be  absolutely  free- 
hand. No  measurement  of  any  sort  is  advisable.  The  brush  is 
held  perpendicular  to  the  paper,  like  an  etcher's  needle,  and  is 
moved  very  slowly,  with  deliberate  intention  as  to  the  width  and 
direction  of  the  line.  The  Japanese  brush  has  been  chosen  be- 
cause it  is  an  implement  made  expressly  for  line  drawing,  is 
readily  obtainable  and  very  inexpensive.  Moreover  it  is  the  most 
sensitive  implement  for  drawing,  admitting  of  great  variety  in 
the  quality  and  width  of  stroke. 

The  exercise  of  drawing  deliberately,  of  causing  the  hand  to 
obey  the  will,  is  in  itself  a  training  in  skill  and  execution. 

Tracing 

As  the  effort  is  always  toward  the  finer  qualities,  tracing  is 
practised  for  the  improvement  of  the  spacings,  or  refinement  of 
the  lines.  For  this  purpose,  and  for  line  work  with  the  brush, 
Japanese  paper  is  the  best.  It  is  sized,  is  very  strong,  soft  in  color, 
and  transparent.  Mere  mechanical  tracing  has  no  value,  but 
tracing  for  improvement  has  a  distinct  art-use. 

Ink  and  Ink  Stone 

Japanese  stick  ink  is  the  most  economical,  as  a  little  grinding 
upon  the  ink  stone  will  produce  a  sufficient  quantity  for  a  large 
amount  of  work.  Bottle  ink  or  water  colors  can  be  used.  The 
materials  suggested  above  are  the  best  for  the  purposes  desired, 
but  they  are  not  absolutely  necessary.  The  exercises  in  line 
drawing  and  in  spacing  could  be  executed  with  pencil,  charcoal, 
crayon,  or  even  oil  paint  brushes.  The  principles  can  be  taught 
in  any  medium. 


Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art  9 

Historic   Examples 

Such  simple  spacing  of  straight  lines  suggests  at  once  the 
architectural  moulding  and  its  kindred.  The  best  examples, 
Greek,  Gothic  and  Renaissance,  can  be  shown  and  their  excellence 
pointed  out. 

Application 

If  desirable  at  this  stage  the  lesson  can  be  applied  directly  to 
designs  for  mouldings,  line  borders  for  bf>ok  covers,  framing,  etc. 


1       I 

If^l 

1       1 

iodczii 

nan 

Fig.  2.     Spacing  of  Rectangular  Panels 


U~.  ■ 


10 


Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art 


-  8*-^ i'-9  ''  — : •«-  8V 


7fl 


3CALE.I"=-r 

J7E.TAI  Uj  *  HALr- 


Fig.  4.     Working  Drawing  from  an  Arrangement  in  Fig    2 


Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art 


ii 


Rectangular  Spacing 

The  first  problem  involves  a  very  simple  synthesis.  The  next 
should  include  the  first  with  an  added  step.  Rectangular  panelling, 
the  arrangement  of  enclosed  spaces  seems  to  follow  naturally. 
The  square  and  circle  being  invariable,  composition  is  possible 
only  with  the  interior  lines.  But  the  rectangle  is  infinitely  vari- 
able; its  proportion  is  a  matter  of  choice;  hence  rectangular 
spacing  lays  a  double  burden  upon  the  designer,  boundary  lines, 
and  interior  lines. 

Suppose  the  Door  is  chosen  as  a  subject.  Its  panelling  affords 
an  opportunity  for  spacing.  (Fig.  2).  After  the  exercise  in 
original  arrangements  of  rectangular  panels  the  student  may 

1.  Draw  an  actual  door  in  perspective.      (Fig.  3.     See  page 

23-) 

2.  Make  a  working  drawing  from  a  free-hand  design,  adapt- 
ing it  to  the  requirements  of  construction.  (Fig.  4). 

Another  good  subject  would  be  a  box  with  panels  for  top,  front, 
and  ends;  with  perspective  drawing  and  working  drawing. 


Fig.   5.     Irregular  Spacing 


12 


Training  in  Theory  and  Practice hf  Teaching  Art 


Irregular  Spacing.    Landscape 

Irregular  spacing  of  straight  lines,  vertical  and  horizontal, 
suggests  a  unit  for  textile  design,  the  familiar  plaid  pattern.  But 
a  similar  system  of  lines  might  be  the  basis  of  a  pictorial  compo- 
sition. (Fig.  5.)  In  either  case  a  few  main  lines  cut  the  space 
into  smaller  divisions.  Both  are  designs,  and  their  excellence  de- 
pends upon  the  same  principle.     The  introduction  of  landscape 


Fig.  6.     Flower  Lines   in   Space   Composition 


Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art 


13 


now  points  to  the  unity  of  all  forms  of  space-art,  and  incidentally 
gives  the  student  an  added  interest. 

Curved  Lines 

A  series  of  exercises  in  curved  line  could  be  undertaken  at  this 
time,  with  many  applications.     These  would  necessarily  be  geo- 


\y  ^7 


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) 

V 

J 

v 

J 

( 

) 

X 

y 

•^ 

j*> 

? 

1 

Fig.  7.     Proportion  in  Curved  Line 

metric.  It  will  be  better,  if  time  is  limited,  to  take  flower  forms 
as  line  themes  for  spacing.  (Fig.  6.)  This  does  not  mean  merely 
drawing  flowers  from  nature  and  enclosing  them  in  a  space — a 


14  Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art 

rather  mechanical  operation — but  a  choice  of  certain  flower  forms 
and  the  attempt  to  use  them  as  a  line  scheme  within  a  space.  Such 
an  exercise  would  suggest  a  reason  for  drawing  the  flower  from 
nature,  especially  if  the  panels  are  developed  into  designs  for 
actual  use. 

Drawing.     Two  Points  of  View 

Note  the  difference  between  drawing  merely  to  acquire  skill 
or  to  obtain  knowledge  of  facts,  and  drawing  things  because  they 
are  beautiful  or  because  there  is  a  definite  art-use  for  the  drawing. 

For  a  more  intimate  study  of  the  nature  of  curved  line  beauty, 
there  might  be  an  exercise  in  composing  curves  of  pottery.  (Fig. 
7.)  It  will  be  seen  that  there  is  beauty  of  spacing  in  the  curve 
itself. 

Greek  Vases.     Pottery 

Fine  examples  of  curves  can  be  shown,  at  least  in  photograph. 
But  here  is  the  opportunity  for  work  in  the  museum — for  the 
drawing  of  Greek  vases,  pottery,  and  even  of  sculptured  figures 
and  animals, — as  examples  of  beauty  of  curve. 

Application  in  Clay  Modelling  or  Metal 

Immediate  application  can  be  made  in  clay  modelling,  by  build- 
ing up  bowls  and  vases  from  original  designs  by  students.  The 
same  may  be  said  for  hammered  metal. 

Principles  of  Design 

So  far  there  has  been  a  consideration  of  spacing  for  a  general 
effect  of  good  arrangement.  Following  this  would  be  the  study 
of  certain  definite  ideas  of  composition — distinct  ways  of  creating 
harmony  of  line.  These  ways,  for  want  of  a  better  name,  may  be 
called  Principles  of  Design.  For  ordinary  purposes  of  teaching 
two  will  suffice— and  may  be  named  Subordination  and  Rhythmic 
Repetition. 

Other  principles  of  lesser  importance,  Symmetry,  Opposition, 
Transition,  could  be  specially  studied  if  necessary,  but  usually 
they  are  included  in  exercises  in  the  two  first  named. 

Subordination  is  that  principle  by  which  the  parts  are  mutually 
dependent  upon  some  dominating  part  or  group  of  parts.  A  good 
illustration  is  the  flower  with  its  main  line  of  stem,  from  which 
radiate  the  lesser  lines  of  leaves  and  petals.   (Fig.  6.)      Spaces 


^Jft  lj& 


Fig.   16.     Dark-and-Light  Massing.     Sketches  from  the  Masters 


Fig.  17.     Dark-and-Light  Massing.     From  Nature 


Fig.  26.     Three  Values 


Fig.  19.     Dark-and-Light ;  Three  Valuer-.     Variations  with  Ancient  Textile 

Patterns 


Fig.  20.     Coptic  Design ;  Three  Values 


Fig.  25.     Four  Values.     Original  Design 


Fig.  22.     Three  Values.     Original  Design 


Fig.    21.     Dark-arul-Light  ;    Three    Values.     Original    Designs 


Fig.  23.     Three  Values.     Original  Designs 


->l-«^AH*^A.^ 


HWI.ll    >  I  III  I 


I  - 


■^is«3£3E 


arrjsiw 


aGWNSPB5,*,1 


Dark-and-Lifjht  ;     Three     Value*.      Original     Designs    hased     mi     Kastern 


' 


:ig.  24.     Three   Values.     Original    Design* 


Fig.   27.     Dark-and-Light ;    More   than    Three   Value-.     Landscape 
Composition 


Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art 


15 


may  be  arranged  in  principal  and  subordinate  groups.     (Fig.  8.) 
There  is  a  central  or  dominating  idea  and  all  others  are  con- 
tributory, like  the  "point"  of  a  story,  the  "centre  of  interest"  or 


Fig.   8.     Principles    of   Design;    Subordination.     Original    Designs 

the  "focus"  of  the  picture,  the  "main  line"  of  the  statue,  the  "style" 
of  the  building,  the  "key"  of  the  color  scheme. 


16  Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art 

An  exercise  in  this  principle  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  8.  A  branch 
of  apples  furnishes  a  set  of  lines  and  spaces  that  may  be  set  into 
a  rectangular  panel.  The  unity  of  such  a  design  is  dependent  upon 
the  simple  and  clear  disposition  of  the  main  spacings. 

Landscape  is  an  excellent  subject  for  studies  in  Subordination. 
(Figs.  16,  17,  18.)  An  extended  series  could  be  introduced  in- 
volving Flowers,  Fruit,  Figures,  Animals,  Landscape,  Architect- 
ural detail,  and  Decorative  panels. 

Applications 

Panels  for  Wood  and  Metal. 

Book  Cover  design. 

Illustration  with  page  composition. 

Landscape  sketching. 

With  this  work  would  be  associated  drawing  from  nature  and 
special  research  in  the  history  of  architecture,  painting  and  de- 
sign. Photographs  of  fine  examples  could  be  shown  the  class,  and 
museum  work  in  copying  be  carried  on  in  connection  with  the 
lesson. 

)+  Rhythmic  Repetition 

This  is  perhaps  the  oldest  form  of  art  expression.  The  dance, 
the  drum-beat,  the  rhythmic  chant,  rude  rhymes,  incised  and 
painted  borders  on  pottery,  woven  borders  and  patterns — all 
these  are  harmonies  created  according  to  one  underlying  principle. 
They  are  the  beginnings  of  the  drama,  music,  poetry,  architecture 
and  painting. 

Mere  repetition  has  no  art-value,  but  repetition  in  fine  spacing, 
with  an  intention  of  producing  harmony, — this  calls  for  apprecia- 
tion and  a  feeling  of  power. 

Borders 
It  is  not  necessary  to  illustrate  here  the  well  known  straight 
line  frets  and  borders,  the  zigzags  and  meanders  and  swastikas, 
common  in  all  art  from  the  engraved  paddle  and  tapa  cloth  of 
the  savage  to  the  Greek  temple.  The  class  may  profitably  study 
the  development  of  rhythmic  borders  by  taking  a  series  of  straight 
lines  I  1  I  I  I  I  I  — I  -]~\  -|-|-]~l  or  AAAAAAA  add- 
ing other  lines  and  producing  varieties  of  the  so-called  Greek 
fret.  These  might  furnish  motifs  the  best  of  which  could  be 
drawn  large  enough  to  afford  interesting  spacing. 


Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art 


17 


A  good  exercise  for  beginning  the  study  of  this  principle  is 
based  upon  the  straight  or  curved  line  border.  The  instructor 
may  suggest  several  themes,  or  the  students  may   choose  them 


Fig.  9.     Variations  in    Two  Values 


18  Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art 

from  primitive   art  and  compose  variations   in  many   spacings. 

(Fig-  9-) 

Another  series  can  be  based  upon  such  simple  units  as  the  line 

and  dot  (Fig.  10),  or    |  »-/. 

Surface  Pattern 

This  is  a  more  complicated  form  of  rhythmic  repetition,  yet 
the  structure  is  very  simple,  all  being  reducible  to  a  geometric 

skeleton    of    squares,    triangles, 
■         lllilll    9m*    lllilli  rectangles,    or    diamonds.      The 
III    |k  •  A  I  I  checker    board    is    a    good    line 

scheme  for  a  beginning,  placing 


-         ■■■■■■■    r    -     -    ■■■■■■■ 

;.ii  i'i"i  ii.;.ir  i"!"i 

||||  -■  lllilll      |     T     4    ^11V-111V-    ^l    a    1^5****1*1.5,    Fic*v,iiiS 

.  "   ||||g||    "  ■  M    lll.gll  a  figure  in  each  square  or  each 
•  l|    |JH|I|    |k™j|    |ipl||l  alternate  square.  The  vlass  should 

m    I     lll|ll      9    m    I  consult  books  upon  the  structure 

!"'  M  i"!"i  i.,;,u 
:.n  i"!"i  ii.:.if  i"!"i 
S  inT.il  *j*  ihT.ii 
;,.i  h»!ii  km  i»'!««j 


of  pattern.1 

Now  returning  to  borders, 
more  difficult  problems  are  un- 
dertaken, using  curved  line, 
flowers,  animals  and  figures. 
(Figs,  ii,  13,  14.)  Then  the 
Fig   10     Line  and  Dot  same  units  may  be  combined  in 

surface  patterns.     (Fig.  30.) 


Textile  Pattern 

The  collection  of  textiles2  will  demonstrate  the  methods  of 
composing  pattern  through  the  ages,  but  most  important  of  all 
is  the  appreciation  of  the  finer  qualities  as  to  spacing,  proportion, 
and  rhythm.  For  example  the  Italian  of  the  fourteenth  century 
has  a  distinction  of  line  harmony  which  is  lost  by  the  eighteenth 
century  (Fig.  42). 

Landscape.     Pictorial  Expression 

Rhythmic  repetition  is  a  structural  principle  often  chosen  by 
the  masters  of  landscape.     A  mural  painting,  for  example,  with 

1  The  Anatomy  of  Pattern,   The  Planning  of  Ornament,   and  other  books  by  Lewis 
F.    Day. 

Line  and  Form  and  The  Bases  of  Design,  by  Walter  Crane. 

Theorie  de  V ornement ,  by  Jules  Bourgoin. 

A   Theory  of  Pure  Design,  by  Denman  W.   Ross. 

2  Collection  presented  to  Teachers  College  by  Dr.  Denman  W.    Ross  of    Cambridge. 
Other   examples   loaned    by    friends.      Photographs   of   textile   pattern. 


Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art 


19 


the  vertical  lines  of  trees  cutting  horizontal  lines  may  thus  har- 
monize with  an  architectural  setting  of  columns  and  pilasters. 
Repetition  in  landscape  tends  to  an  expression  of  solemnity  and 
calm,  or  of  harmonious  motion.  Its  effect  is  to  unify  and  simplify 
the  whole  composition. 


'sr*^ 


Fig.    11.     Dark-and-Light ;    Two   Values.     Subordination   and    Rhythmic 

Repetition 

Repetition  occurs  in  nature  in  countless  forms,  but  for  students' 
purposes  the  lines  of  trees,  hills  and  mountains,  tide  lines,  boats, 
flocks  of  birds  and  animals,  hayfields  and  streets  will  afford  abun- 
dant material.  For  this,  as  for  all  composition  work  the  student 
should  make  many  studies  from  nature.  He  thus  has,  as  we  said 
above,  a  definite  art-use  for  the  drawings  and  a  very  strong  in- 
centive for  learning  to  draw. 


20 


Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art 


Application 

Even  for  repeating  patterns  and  compositions  in  line  only, 
there  are  many  possible  applications.  Here  are  a  few  of  them : 
Line  and  dot  border  for  book  covers,  incised  lines  in  wood  carv- 
ing, patterns  in  perforated  metal  for  lamp  shades,  sconces,  and 
lanterns,  embroidered  lines,  and  patterns  in  kindergarten  sewing. 

Dark-and-Light  (or  Notan1) 

Though  for  convenience  the  elements,  Line,  Dark-and-Light, 
Color,  are  treated  separately  in  this  article,  it  must  not  be  in- 


%.£ 


Fig.   12.     Dark-and-Light.     Two  Values.     Subordination  and   Symmetry 

ferred  that  classroom  practice  conforms  to  this  sequence.  In  fact 
dark-and-light  exercises  should  enter  the  course  near  the  begin- 
ning, and  color  should  follow  close  after  dark-and-light.  The 
order  would  be  something  like  this  : 

i.  A  line  exercise  involving  a  principle  of  design. 

2.  Choose  one  drawing  and  see  how  many  good  dark-and- 
light  schemes  it  will  give. 

3.  Substitute  colors  for  neutral  tones.  This  will  show  how 
many  are  the  possibilities  from  even  one  design,  and  will  develop 
invention  and  a  sense  of  capacity. 

1  We  have  no  one  word  in  English  for  this  idea.     The  Japanese  word  notan,  "dark, 
light,"    is   very  expressive    and  more   direct   than   the    Italian   word   chiaroscuro. 


Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art 


21 


The  use  of  tone,  varying  the  quantity  of  light  upon  a  line  de- 
sign, brings  in  a  new  and  different  kind  of  harmony.  The  most 
elementary  form  of  this  is  in  the  contrast  of  two  values,  black 
with  white.  The  most  complete  is  the  picture  in  full  tone.  The 
progression  is  then 


Fig.   13.     Original  Design 

i.  Two  values,  black  and  white.     (Figs.  11,  12,  13,  14.) 

2.  Two  values,  dark  gray  and  light  gray.      (Fig.  15.) 

3.  Three  values,  dark,  medium,  and  light.      (Figs.  19,  23.) 

4.  More  than  three  values.     (Fig.  27.) 
Dark-and-Light  exercises  are  the  beginning  of  painting.    Here 

again  the  Japanese  materials  are  very  satisfactory,  but  it  is  possi- 
ble to  do  all  the  work  with  water  colors,  charcoal,  oil  paint  or 
even  pencil. 

Two  Values 

The  problems  may  be  infinitely  varied  and  should  differ  from 
year  to  year. 

In  Fig.  9  are  some  of  the  first  attempted. 

Fig.  11  might  follow  these,  illustrating  Subordination  and 
Repetition,  and  Fig.  12,  Symmetry  and  Subordination. 

Figs.  13,  14,  textile  patterns,  inspired  by  eastern  Mediterra- 
nean embroidery,  involve  not  only  dark  and  light  but  the  first 
step  in  color  study,  as  they  can  be  executed  in  blue  or  red. 


Dark-and-Ligiit  in   Pictures.     The  Picturesque 

The  peculiar  beauty  of  landscape  which  we  designate  by  the 
term  "picturesque"  is  largely  the  beauty  of  dark-and-light.  Ar- 
tists call  it  "massing"  and  "spotting." 


22 


Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art 


To  understand  the  structural  use  0f  the  dark-and-light  ele- 
ment in  pictorial  art  the  class  makes  ink  sketches  in  two  values 
i.  From  the  masters  of  painting.     (Fig.  16.) 
2.  From  nature.     (Fig.  17.) 


k     •>   a.    m.    ■. 


Fig.   14.     Variations  in  Two  Values.     Original   Design 


Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art         23 

Exercises  in  dark-and-light,  two  values,  might  take  the  form 
of  those  illustrated  in  Fig.  18.  A  landscape  is  composed  in  line, 
then  many  variations  are  played  upon  the  single  theme.    The  stu- 


Fig.   18.     Dark-and-Light ;  Two  Values.     Exercise   with  Landscape. 
Original   Designs 

dents  should  use  their  own  sketches  from  nature.  In  default  of 
those,  the  instructor  draws  the  landscape  subject  upon  the  board, 
or  gives  the  class  photographs  from  which  to  make  compositions. 


X>OS  JVi 


24  Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art 

Application 

Some  eminent  illustrators  have  used  two  values,  black  on 
white,  not  merely  for  page  decorations  but  for  complete  compo- 
sitions with  figures.1  Blue  and  white  china,  and  pottery  with 
blue  or  black  patterns  are  excellent  examples  of  the  use  of  two 
values  in  both  patterns  and  pictures.2 

Metal  corners  and  key  plates,  posters,  page  ornaments,  de- 
signs in  gilt  or  one  color  on  book  covers,  and  stencil  designs 
on  cloth  and  paper  are  a  few  of  the  applications  of  this  element 
in  design. 

Three  and  More  Values 

With  three  values,  light,  medium,  and  dark,  a  new  idea  is 
introduced,  the  interval.  This  medium  tone  is  the  element  which 
harmonizes  extremes  of  difference.  Both  dark  and  light  may 
float  in  it.  By  it  the  whole  composition  is  unified.  To  mix  this 
tone  in  ink  wash,  to  determine  its  depth  and  apply  it  successfully 
to  paper  is  a  matter  of  good  judgment  and  skilful  handling. 

Fig.  19.  Textile  patterns  are  drawn  freehand  from  historic 
examples,  then  used  as  line  schemes  for  variations  in  three  values. 

Figs.  20,  21,  22.  Some  of  the  earlier  line  work  developed  in 
dark-and-light  of  three  values. 

Figs.  23,  24,  25,  26  are  original  motifs  developed  in  three  or 
four  values. 

Landscape.     Three  or  More  Values 

For  landscape  and  all  pictorial  work  in  a  few  values,  charcoal 
will  be  found  very  convenient.  It  is  an  especially  good  medium 
for  those  who  intend  to  pursue  the  profession  of  painting.  For 
large  designs  in  three  or  more  values  charcoal  and  oil  paint  are 
the  best  mediums. 

The  paper  is  covered  with  a  middle  tone,  dark  put  in  with  soft 
charcoal,  light  taken  out  with  bread  or  rubber  (Fig.  27.) 

Application 
Book  illustration,  and  general  pictorial  work.    The  mezzotint.3 

1  See   illustrations   by    R.    Anning   Bell    and    others    in    The    Banbury    Cross   Series. 

2  See  collections  in  Museums — Ming  porcelain,  Dedham  ware,  and  Japanese  pottery. 
"  See   article  by   Sir  F.   Seymour  Haden,   Harper's  Magazine. 


Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art         25 

Color 

The  study  of  color  proceeds  in  three  stages : 

1.  Theory  of  color,  with  exercises. 

2.  Observation  of,  and  copying  of  good  color. 

3.  Original  color  composition. 

Theory  of  Color 

The  science  of  color  may  have  more  or  less  attention,  but  the 
art  student's  main  quest  is  for  color  harmony.  What  constitutes 
a  harmony  can  only  be  decided  by  the  appreciations — by  a  color 
feeling  developed  by  training  and  experience. 

If  one  space  is  to  vary  from  another  by  color,  the  difference 
can  be  in  three  ways  only : 

1.  Difference  of  Hue,  as  red  from  green. 

2.  Difference  of  Dark-and-Light,  as  dark  blue,  light  blue. 

3.  Difference  of  Intensity — as  gray  yellow,  and  bright  red. 
See  diagram  Fig.  28.1 

Exercises  involving  difference  of  Hue. 

A  circle  is  drawn  and  divided  into  five  parts  (Fig.  28a).  The 
centre  is  painted  a  neutral  gray  of  a  medium  value.  The  other 
divisions  are  painted  in  primary  hues  of  the  same  value  as  the 
centre,  and  equal  in  intensity.  This  may  be  repeated  in  a  light  or 
dark  key  by  painting  N  light  or  dark.  A  line  design,  (Fig.  28d) 
geometric  or  pictorial,  is  chosen  and  the  spaces  painted  in  hues 
from  the  circle.  The  possible  differences  are  two  only — size  and 
hue.  As  there  is  no  difference  of  dark-and-light  or  intensity,  the 
beauty  of  the  design  would  lie  in  a  certain  iridescence,  suggesting 
perhaps  stained  glass. 

The  ability  to  paint  hues  of  equal  value  and  intensity  is  worth 
much  to  the  artist.  The  ability  to  perceive  such  relations  tends 
to  a  finer  sense  of  harmony. 

Exercises  in  dark  and  light  colors. 

One  color  is  chosen,  say  Prussian  Blue,  and  is  painted  in  a 
scale  of  five  tones  from  light  to  dark.     (Fig.  28b.)     A  design  is 

1  For  the  statement  of  the  theory  of  color  (and  of  line  and  dark-and-light  as  well) 
the    writer    is   indebted    to    Professor    Ernest    F.    Fenollosa. 

The  reader  is  referred  also  to  A  Theory  of  Pure  Design  by  Dr.  Denman  W. 
Ross  of  Harvard  University,  and  to  A  Color  Notation  by  Mr.  Albert  H.  Munscll. 
Mr.  Munsell  has  prepared  color  spheres  illustrating  the  differences  and  values  of 
color,    also    scales,    crayons,    and    tuned    colors    for    class    room    use. 


26  Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art 

colored  in  terms  of  the  scale — in  one  value  like  Fig.  13  or  two  or 
more  values. 

For  illustrations  we  refer  again  to  blue  china,  to  the  blue  and 
white  textiles,  and  to  Eastern  embroideries.  Other  hues  may  be 
used  in  like  manner. 

Exercises  in  bright  and  gray  colors. 

This  is  the  most  difficult  of  all  as  it  requires  more  appreciation 
of  delicate  differences.     A  simple  scale  is  suggested  in  Fig.  28c. 


LIGHT 


DARK 


BRIGHT 


GRAY 


HUE 


NOTAN 


INTENSITY 


Design      in 

blue   and    qreen 


Design       in 
licjht    blue    and 
dark    blue 


Design       in 
yellow-qray  and 
briqht      red 


d.  e  f 

Fig.  28 

Perhaps  Vermilion  is  chosen — this  is  a  brilliant  hue  rather  above 
the  medium  value.  Painting  the  upper  space  with  pure  vermillion 
and  the  lower  space  with  pure  gray,  the  intervening  spaces  are 
filled  with  tones  of  more  or  less  brilliancy  according  to  place.  A 
design  should  then  be  colored  in  terms  of  this  scale.  (Fig.  28f). 
Other  hues  should  be  scaled  in  the  same  manner. 

In  the  Junior  year  the  study  of  the  theory  of  color  is  restricted 
to  these  few  elementary  steps.  After  some  practice  in  these,  the 
class  enters  directly  upon  color  composition. 


Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art         27 

One  approach  to  this  is  through  dark-and -light  with  exer- 
cises like  the  following:  A  design  is  painted  in  three  values, 
(Fig.  20  or  Fig.  21)  with  ink  or  black  water  color.  Color  is  then 
mixed  with  one,  two,  or  all  of  these  values.  The  result  will  be  a 
design  with  suggestions  of  hues  more  or  less  vague.  They  will 
tend  to  harmonize  as  there  is  a  good  dark-and-light  relation,  and 
an  equality  of  intensity.  Moreover  the  neutral  gray  holds  them 
in  solution  and  unifies  them.  By  diminishing  the  amount  of 
neutral,  one  approaches  brilliancy.  Full  harmony  of  color  de- 
pends upon  many  conditions,  but  in  elementary  work  we  try  to 
obtain  at  least  three  simple  harmonies : 

1.  Good  spacing,  which  governs  the  quantity  of  color. 

2.  Harmonious  massing  of  dark  and  light  colors. 

3.  Balance  as  to  distribution  of  brilliant  and  gray  tones. 

Copying 

The  exercises  serve  to  impress  upon  the  mind  the  fact  of  cer- 
tain fundamental  relations  of  color,  but  an  appreciation  of  the 
higher  harmonies  must  come  from  a  sympathetic  study  of  master- 
pieces of  color.  To  avoid  confusion  it  is  best  to  copy  single 
passages  at  first,  or  to  make  small  blotty  sketches  of  the  main 
color  scheme.  For  classroom  use  there  are  scarcely  more  than 
two  kinds  of  material  available — the  textile  and  the  Japanese 
print. 

Applications 

Printing  with  wood  blocks.1 

As  color  harmony  depends  upon  good  spacing,  good  massing 
of  darks  and  lights,  and  a  balance  of  intensities  it  is  obvious  that 
the  student  needs  opportunity  to  try  many  ways  of  arranging 
colors  and  masses.  Choosing  rhythmic  repetition  as  the  principle 
with  which  to  try  one  set  of  experiments,  a  unit  is  designed  and 
cut  upon  a  wood  block.  By  printing  this  figure  in  different  ar- 
rangements, a  well-spaced  pattern  is  evolved  (Figs.  29,  30).  By 
printing  in  colors,  following  the  best 'spacing,  there  is  opportunity 
for  creating  numberless  color  schemes. 

There  is  not  space  to  enter  here  upon  a  full  description  of  this 
process.     It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  the  patterns  may  be  printed 

1  See  article  by  Arthur  W.  Dow  in  The  Manual  Training  Magazine  for  October, 
1906,  and  in  the  School  Arts  Book  for  March,  1907.  Also  Composition  by  Arthur  W. 
Dow.      Revised    Edition,    1908. 


28  Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art 

on  cloth  with  dyes  or  oil  color, — curtains,  draperies,  etc.  (Fig. 
30),  or  upon  paper  with  dry  colors  mixed  with  mucilage,  (Fig. 
29)  end-papers  for  books.  The  hand  printed  stuffs  of  India  are 
the  best  examples  for  illustration. 

Stencils 

The  Stencil  is  another  valuable  means  of  experimenting  with 
many  variations  of  color.  The  wood  block  necessarily  limits  the 
student  to  small  units,  but  the  stencil  admits  of  very  large  and 
complicated  figures.     (Fig.  31.1) 

Pictorial  composition  in  the  Junior  year  should  be  carried  be- 
yond three  values  of  dark-and-light  and  beyond  the  elementary 
stages  of  color  composition.  The  charcoal  landscape  is  one  good 
subject  for  such  a  final  problem  including  all  the  principles  studied 
through  the  year. 

The  landscape  is  first  drawn  in  line  to  decide  upon  the  spacing, 
then  blotted  in  with  a  few  tones  of  charcoal  for  harmonious  mass- 
ing, good  tone  intervals,  and  some  variety  of  texture.  When 
fixed,  water  color  is  washed  over  the  charcoal  tones  in  such  hues 
as  the  student  may  decide  upon.  If  the  dark-and-light  foundation 
is  good  the  result  should  be  a  rich  and  vibrating  color  harmony. 

Whether  the  final  problem  be  a  design  or  a  picture  the  essen- 
tial point  is  that  the  experience  of  the  year  be  summed  up  in  an 
original  work  involving  a  free  use  of  the  language  of  Line,  Dark- 
and-Light,  and  Color. 

Fine  Arts  1-2,  Object  Drawing,  Perspective,  Water  Color 
Painting,  Oil  Painting 

This  is  a  course  in  freehand  drawing  for  beginners,  and  for 
those  who  wish  to  acquire  some  facility  in  representation  for 
scientific  purposes.  Perspective,  shading,  the  technique  of  pencil, 
pen  and  charcoal,  and  elementary  water  color  come  within  the 
limits  of  the  course. 

Fine  Arts  7-8.     Drawing  and  Painting 

Junior  students  have  in  this  course  an  extended  drill  in  repre- 
sentation.    Mere  nature  imitation  is  not  considered ;  the  aim  is 

1  For    discussion   of    the    educational    value    of    stencilling    see    Walter    Crane's    The 
Claims  of   Decorative  Art. 


Training  in  Th-eory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art         29 

to  represent  forcefully  and  with  character,  to  see  things  in  their 
true  proportions  and  tone  values,  to  express  the  qualities  of  lines 
and  textures. 

Casts,  still  life  (Fig.  32)  and  the  living  model,  the  usual 
studio  subjects, — are  the  basis  for  the  study  of  the  various  prin- 
ciples of  representation.  In  the  last  part  of  the  year  outdoor  land- 
scape painting  and  sketching  are  practiced  when  hours  permit. 

The  course  prepares  the  teacher  for  the  rapid  blackboard 
drawing  so  essential  in  the  presentation  of  art  lessons  in  the 
schools.  (Fig.  33.)  It  lays  the  foundation  for  the  illustration 
work  with  figures  and  landscape,  and  for  the  advanced  drawing, 
required  in  the  senior  year. 

Lecture  Course 

Fine  Arts  53-54.     Art  Apreciation ;  History  of  Art. 

A  series  of  weekly  lectures  in  which  the  masterpieces  of  ar- 
chitecture, sculpture  and  painting  are  critically  studied.  A  his- 
torical sequence  is  followed  with  required  reading.  M.  Reinach's 
work,  Apollo,  the  History  of  Art  throughout  the  Ages,  is  used  as 
a  text-book,  and  other  standard  authors  are  consulted  as  the  sub- 
jects require.  The  aim  of  the  course  is  for  appreciation  rather 
than  mere  historical  knowledge.  In  the  beginning  there  is  a  dis- 
cussion of  art  structure  with  many  illustrations  in  all  fields  of 
space-art,  preparing  the  students  to  look  for  qualities  and  fine  re- 
lations, for  harmony  and  unity  in  design  and  in  execution. 

Effort  is  made  to  show  throughout  the  series  that  all  space-art, 
whether  pattern  or  building,  statue  or  picture,  is  based  upon 
identical  elements,  there  being  only  a  difference  in  the  degree  of 
harmony.  For  example,  a  woven  border  in  a  Peruvian  tapestry, 
and  the  colonnade  of  a  Greek  temple  are  both  expressions  of 
beauty  by  means  of  Rhythmic  Repetition.  To  understand  why 
one  rhythm  is  so  much  finer  than  the  other  demands  both  historical 
knowledge  and  art  appreciation. 

The  course  is  illustrated  by  lantern  slides,  photographs  and 
reflectoscope. 

Senior  Year 

Fine  Arts  11-12.  Clay  Modelling.  (Placed  in  the  senior  year 
for  convenience,  but  is  open  to  juniors  and  may  be  taken  parallel 
with  5-6,  17-18,  and  7-8.) 


30  Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art 

As  courses  5-6  and  17-18  lead  to  painting  and  design,  so  11- 
12  leads  to  sculpture  or  advanced  hand  work.  The  steps  are 
arranged  progressively  from  elementary  compositions  in  incised 
lines  to  modelling  in  full  relief.    The  general  order  is : 

1.  Low  relief — Designs  in  incised  lines.     Designs  in  one  degree 

of  relief.     (Fig.  34.)     These  may  take  the  form  of  tiles  to 
be  glazed. 

2.  Higher  relief — Studies  of  animals,  fruits  and  flowers.     Origi- 

nal designs  in  panels,  to  be  fired  and  glazed — or  cast  and 
afterward  painted  in  colors. 

3.  Full    relief — Pottery  building  as   a  study   of   line   and   color. 

Study   of  Greek   vases   and  the  finer   examples  of   pottery. 

Decoration   of   pottery   involving   design   and    a   knowledge 

of  color.     Modelling  from  life.     Composition  of  figures  or 

animals. 
During  the  course  the  class  copies  casts  from  the  Arretine 
moulds,1  and  any  examples  that  will  give  an  appreciation  of  re- 
finement of  form,  delicacy  and  force  in  execution  and  harmony  in 
proportions.  Whatever  the  problem  may  be,  the  modelling  is 
undertaken  to  give  an  experience  in  finer  expression. 

Fine  Arts  9-10.     Painting  and  Illustration 

This  is  a  continuuation  of  5-6  and  7-8  with  a  more  extended 
studio  practice  in  drawing  and  painting,  and  the  application  of 
principles  of  composition  to  book  illustration,  landscape  painting, 
figure  painting,  and  mural  decorations.  Building  upon  the  ex- 
perience of  the  Junior  year  the  work  is  planned  in  advanced 
problems  in  Line,  Dark-and-Light,  and  Color.  A  rough  outline 
will  indicate  the  general  trend,  but  the  course  will  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  needs  of  the  class. 

Line 

Drawing  from  casts,  still  life,  figures,  textiles,  stained  glass, 
Japanese  prints.  Original  line  composition,  street  scenes,  land- 
scapes. 

1  These   may   be    obtained    from    the    Museum   of    Fine    Arts,    Boston. 


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Fig.  29.     Wood-block  Printing.     End  Papers 


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Fig.  30.     Wood-block   Printing.     Studies   in   Rhythm  and  Color 
By  permission    of  the   Manual   Training   Magazine 


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Fig.  31.     Stencilled  Patterns 


Fig.  32.     Object   Drawing 


Fig.  33.     Blackboard   Sketches 


Fig.   34.     Clay  Modelling;   Incised   Lines 


Wi. 


Fig.   38.     Studies   for    Stained   Glass 


Fig.  35.     More  than  Three  Values 


Fig.  36.     Sketches  from  Lite 


Fig.  40.     High   School ;    l'ir-t    Year 


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Children's  Work.     Original    Designs    for   Hook   Cover 


Fig.   41.     Rug   Design 


Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art  31 

Dark-and-Light 

Neutral  scale  in  seven  tones.  Designs  in  terms  of  this  scale. 
Still  life  in  terms  of  this  scale  executed  in  charcoal  or  in  oil. 
The  effort  is  toward  an  appreciation  of  finer  intervals,  toward 
simplicity  of  tone,  and  unity  in  the  whole  result. 

Landscape  in  five  or  six  values,  executed  in  charcoal  or  oil — ■ 
the  notan  of  successive  planes,  the  notan  of  the  whole  (Fig.  35). 

Figures  from  life  in  a  few  flat  tones  of  charcoal,  (Fig.  36) 
seeking  to  express  action,  character,  and  life. 

Original  composition  of  figures  and  landscape,  as  illustrations, 
as  mural  decorations,  or  as  easel  pictures.     (Fig.  37.) 

Color 

More  complex  exercises  in  Hue,  etc.,  but  using  oil  paint  as 
the  medium  and  applying  the  units  of  the  scales  to  designs  for 
stained  glass,  posters,  and  illustrations.  Copying  of  fine  color 
schemes  from  textiles  and  Japanese  prints. 

Painting  still  life,  in  oil,  in  full  color.  Original  color  compo- 
sitions for  book  covers,  illustrations,  posters,  pictures  and  mural 
decorations. 

The  students  are  advised  to  use  color  freely,  working  for 
texture,  quality  and  forceful  expression.  The  experience  of  the 
course  is  important  for  art  teachers  and  professional  students  of 
art. 

Fine  Arts  19-20.     Advanced  Design  and  House  Decoration 

This  is  a  second  section  of  the  senior  class  in  which  the  prin- 
ciples studied  in  5-6,  17-18,  and  7-8  are  applied  in  advanced  de- 
sign. 

The  first  half  of  the  year  is  devoted  to  work  in  special  lines 
of  design,  as  glass,  furniture,  wall  papers  and  textiles;  the  last 
half  of  the  year  to  complete  schemes  for  house  decoration.  The 
general  outline  is  as  follows : 

Line— Stained  glass  (Fig.  38),  the  lead  line— copies  of  fine  old 
glass,  research  work  in  the  Avery  Library.  Architectural 
lines.  The  lines  and  proportions  of  furniture.  The  compo- 
sition of  pattern. 
Dark-and-Light— Scale  of  seven  neutral  tones.  Copying  of  his- 
toric   examples    of    textile,    and    arranging    the    pattern    in 


32  Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art 

a    few    tones.      Original    patterns    in    dark-and-light.      The 

"notan"  of  metal  work.     Panels  and  decorations  in  neutral 

values. 
Color — Color  scales,  etc.  with   application  to  both  historic  and 

original  designs.     The  use  of  fresco  colors;  wall  paper  and 

carpet  designing. 

Stained  glass  in  full  color. 

Landscape  as  wall  decoration. 

Book  covers  and  illuminations. 

Color  schemes  for  rooms. 
The  course  is  of  value  to  other  than  professional  designers 
as  it  affords  opportunity  for  a  critical  study  of  house  furnishing 
from  the  point  of  view  of  good  taste. 


Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art  33 

SHORT    COURSES;    AND    COURSES    IN    OTHER 
DEPARTMENTS 

Fine  Arts  13-14.  Design.  An  abridged  course  in  the  prin- 
ciples of  design,  for  students  in  manual  training.     See  Fine  Arts 

5-6- 

Fine  Arts  115-116.  Design  in  the  Kindergarten.  This  also 
is  abridged  from  5-6  for  kindergarten  teachers.  The  work  is 
planned  for  general  art  appreciation  with  some  studio  practice. 
See  Fine  Arts  5-6. 

The  Department  of  Manual  Training  (see  special  announce- 
ment, also  the  announcement  of  Teachers  College)  offers  courses 
in  Constructive  Design,  Wood  Carving,  Wood  Working,  Art 
Metal,  and  Hand  Work  for  the  various  grades  of  schools.  The 
Department  of  Domestic  Art  (see  announcement)  offers  courses 
in  Sewing,  Textile  Art,  Household  Design,  and  Embroidery. 

These  are  recommended  as  electives,  that  students  may  have 
full  opportunity  to  create  in  material,  and  may  see  that  good  de- 
sign is  the  basis  of  all  successful  constructive  work. 

Education  63-64.     Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art 

All  students  entering  this  senior  course  must  have  satisfied 
the  requirements  of  Fine  Arts  5-6  and  7-8,  must  have  completed 
the  fundamental  teaching  course,  Education  A,  Educational  Psy- 
chology, and  must  take,  parallel  with  the  art  work,  Education  B, 
History  and  Principles  of  Education. 

The  Horace  Mann  Schools  of  Teachers  College  with  more 
than  a  thousand  pupils,  are  open  to  art  students  for  observation, 
and  in  some  exceptional  cases,  for  practice  in  teaching.  The 
Speyer  School,  with  over  six  hundred  pupils,  in  eight  grades,  was 
established  as  the  practice  school  of  Teachers  College. 

Theory  of  Art  Teaching 

This  has  been  discussed  at  length  in  the  first  part  of  this 
article.  The  course,  Fine  Arts  5-6,  Principles  of  Design,  is  a 
fundamental  art  course  for  teachers  in  which  the  theory  and 
principles  are  applied  along  general  lines. 

In  Education  63-64  there  is  a  more  detailed  study  of  theory 
with  special  reference  to  teaching.  This  involves  a  knowledge  of 
the  methods  of  art  teaching  which  had  their  beginning  in  the  late 


34  Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art 

Renaissance,  of  the  effect  of  such  teaching,  of  the  methods  prior 
to  the  Renaissance  as  far  as  they  are  known,  and  of  the  methods 
of  Oriental  peoples.  As  there  are  two  distinct  points  of  view 
which  we  call  "Academic"  and  "Synthetic"  respectively,  it  is 
necessary  to  distinguish  them  carefully  and  to  know  their  history 
and  practical  working.  Observation  of  expert  teaching  and  of 
the  conditions  under  which  work  must  be  done  in  elementary  and 
secondary  grades  prepares  the  student  for  practice. 

Each  member  of  the  class  arranges  a  tentative  course  in  the 
form  of  a  lesson  plan,  with  illustrations  describing  in  detail  the 
presentation,  and  the  method  of  working  out  each  lesson  in  the 
classroom.  Each  student  also  serves  as  assistant  for  a  specified 
term,  then  undertakes  a  definite  course  of  lessons  to  be  given  un- 
der criticism. 

The  art  teacher  must  thoroughly  understand  the  organization 
of  the  school,  and  have  full  knowledge  of  the  character  of  the 
curriculum  and  the  principles  followed  in  the  general  conduct  of 
the  school. 

When  there  is  a  natural  relation  between  the  art  lesson  and 
some  other  topic  the  art  teacher  takes  advantage  of  it.  The  op- 
portunities are  many  to  ally  the  art  work  with  history,  mathe- 
matics, geography  and  literature.  Obviously  there  is  an  intimate 
connection  between  the  manual  arts  and  the  work  in  design  and 
drawing.  But  the  art  course  to  realize  its  purpose  must  be  a  unit 
in  its  aim,  through  all  grades.  It  must  stand,  first  and  last,  for 
growth  in  critical  judgment  and  appreciation  of  harmony. 

Art  Courses  for  the  Elementary  School 

It  is  superfluous  to  describe  courses  in  detail  as  they  have  al- 
ready been  outlined,  discussed  and  illustrated  in  the  Teachers 
College  Record,  Vol.  VII,  No.  4,  and  Vol.  VIII,  No.  1,  in  articles 
by  Mary  Chevis  Upham,  and  Ethelwyn  Miller  of  the  Horace 
Mann  School,  but  a  brief  summary  will  indicate  the  main  lines  of 
work. 

Kindergarten  and  Primary  Grades 

It  does  not  seem  necessary  to  enter  upon  a  discussion  of  the 
degree  of  aesthetic  appreciation  possessed  by  young  children.  If 
the  work  in  space-art  gives  opportunity  for  choice  as  to  size,  ar- 
rangement and  color,  it  is  then  a  beginning  of  something  which  in 


Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art  35 

a  later  development  will  involve  appreciation.  The  question  is 
what  faculties  will  be  used  by  and  by  in  creating  harmonies  how- 
ever simple,  and  how  much  exercise  can  and  should  be  given  to 
these  faculties  in  these  early  stages.  If  the  child  arranges  a  few 
units  in  a  border  (Fig.  39)  or  places  a  little  picture  on  a  page 
he  is  using  a  rudimentary  appreciation  or  judgment  as  to 
rhythm  and  fitness  that  lays  the  foundation  for  future  expres- 
sion. It  is  no  more  necessary  that  the  design  should  be  applied, 
than  that  a  song  should  be  applied.  If  the  child  has  created  a 
little  melody  of  line  or  color,  complete  in  itself,  he  has  taken  the 
first  step  in  art.  Applications  will  easily  follow,  and  very  natur- 
ally. 

"Picture  Writing."     "Free  Expression" 

The  academic  method  introduces  a  large  amount  of  work  in 
representation,  under  the  headings  given  above,  carefully  avoid- 
ing anything  that  appears  like  design.  There  is  no  doubt  of  the 
value  of  this  free  illustration,  but  it  is  not  strictly  art  work.  It  is 
usually  a  mere  record  of  fact  put  down  with  one  purpose  only — 
that  of  telling  a  story.  This  is  like  the  picture-writing  of  the 
savage  peoples,  and  prehistoric  man,  simply  statements  of  oc- 
currences. 

Design,  for  young  children,  is  sometimes  objected  to  on  the 
ground  that  it  is  "abstract,"  while  the  "free  expression"  is  advo- 
cated because  it  is  "concrete."  Mr.  Fenollosa  has  shown  that  just 
the  opposite  is  true — the  rhythmic  border,  being  complete  in  itself, 
is  concrete  while  the  illustration,  merely  giving  ideas  of  "man," 
"dog,"  "house,"  etc.,  is  pure  abstraction.1  No  one  would  advise 
the  introduction  of  pictorial  composition  into  these  lower  grades. 
Orderly  arrangement  will  take  care  of  itself  provided  there  is 
some  form  of  exercise  involving  good  spacing,  contrast  of  tone 
and  simple  color  scheme — in  fact  design  whether  it  takes  the  form 
of  pattern  or  picture. 

Upper  Grades 

The  children  will  have  had  experience  in  creating  in  simple 
ways  and  are  now  prepared  to  study  more  difficult  line  themes, 
to  observe  more  differences  of  tone,  and  work  them  out  in  scales 

1  Lecture     before     the     Eastern     Art     Teachers     .Association,     1906,     by     Ernest     F. 
Fenollosa. 


36  Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art 

of  three  or  five;  to  observe  nature's  form  and  colors  and  to  ap- 
preciate the  color  and  composition  in  historic  art.  Drawing  and 
painting  of  still  life,  of  animals  and  figures,  and  of  outdoor  land- 
scape should  be  practiced.  Design  may  have  special  applications 
in  the  manual  arts.  House  decoration  and  room  furnishing  will 
give  practical  direction  to  studies  in  good  form  and  color. 

The  progressive  training  through  all  grades  in  a  perception 
of  fine  relations  of  space,  tone  and  color,  and  the  skill  acquired  in 
execution  is  an  asset  alike  to  the  one  who  goes  on  to  the  higher 
grades,  and  the  one  who  leaves  school  to  enter  the  ranks  of  wage 
earners.  The  industries  need  trained  minds  more  than  trained 
hands. 

Art  Teaching  for  the  High  School 

In  Vol.  VII,  No.  3  of  the  Teachers  College  Record  Miss  Lilla 
A.  Nourse  has  given  a  full  description  of  the  art  courses  in  the 
Horace  Mann  High  School,  illustrating  with  pupils'  work  and 
explaining  the  application  of  synthetic  methods. 

Building  upon  the  training  in  the  elementary  school  the  high 
school  art  teacher  arranges  a  progressive  series  extending  over  the 
five  years,  beginning  with  simple  spacing,  and  ending  with  some 
advanced  work  in  full  color.  In  principle,  the  course  would  be 
that  of  the  college  course  Fine  Arts  5-6  simplified.  This  is  a 
theoretical  arrangement  for  a  school  in  which  art  is  required  in 
all  years.  But  in  fact,  the  art  work  of  secondary  schools  is  not 
on  a  satisfactory  basis,  owing  to  the  disturbing  element  of  college 
entrance  requirements.  This  puts  art  in  the  elective  list  for  the 
majority  of  high  schools,  and  makes  a  consecutive  series  impos- 
sible. Until  the  college  recognizes  the  cultural  importance  of  art 
training,  this  unfortunate  state  of  things  will  continue.  Happily 
there  are  already  signs  of  a  change. 

As  conditions  are  now,  the  high  school  art  teacher  is  forced  to 
make  each  year  a  unit,  or  if  the  classes  are  small,  to  give  personal 
or  group  instruction. 

Two  illustrations  will  serve  to  show  the  character  of  the  high 
school  art  course  as  a  training  in  skill  and  appreciation.  Fig.  40 
shows  a  set  of  still  life  drawings,  first  year,  in  which  the  effort  is 
for  expressive  and  forceful  line,  for  quality  of  touch,  for  harmony 
of  parts  and  for  suggestion  of  color.  Fig.  41  is  a  design  for  a 
rug,  fourth  year,  executed  with  wax  crayons  on  gray  paper.    The 


Training  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art         37 

first  step  was  a  study  of  the  structure  of  the  rug — a  question  of 
spacing  and  proportion.    It  must  have  a  centre  and  a  border. 

As  motifs  for  design  for  centre  and  border  the  teacher  sug- 
gested that  the  pupils  use  forms  connected  with  their  summer  ex- 
periences. The  modification  of  a  form  through  weaving  was  ex- 
plained and  illustrated.  Then  the  pupils  arranged  the  symbols 
of  their  choice  in  groups  and  rhythms.  Throughout  the  whole 
lesson  there  was  the  one  purpose,  to  design  a  mg,  and  the  design 
was  adapted  to  realize  that  purpose.  This  one  problem  involved 
observation  of  nature,  drawing  from  nature,  study  of  a  process 
and  its  application  in  historic  art,  and  an  appreciative  use  of  the 
art  language,  Line,  Dark-and-Light,  and  Color. 

Equipment  of  the  Department  of  Fine  Arts 

For  the  work  of  the  courses  designated  above,  the  College 
provides  six  studios,  two  of  them  very  large  (this  number  is  soon 
to  be  increased  to  nine)  an  exhibition  room  and  lecture  rooms. 
The  studios,  work-rooms  and  shops  of  the  Manual  Training  and 
Domestic  Art  departments  are  used  in  the  various  courses  allied 
to  the  Fine  Arts.  From  the  Drake  collection  of  copper  and  brass 
the  college  acquired  many  large  examples  of  the  finest  quality, 
shape  and  color.  The  Ross  collection  of  textiles  contains  ex- 
amples of  silk  brocade,  tapestries,  embroideries  and  printed  stuffs, 
illustrating  the  growth  of  textile  design  through  the  ages.  Stu- 
dents have  the  use  of  a  loan  collection  of  Japanese  prints  and 
books,  with  the  privilege  of  copying  and  of  using  them  in  teaching. 
The  Bryson  Library  of  Teachers  College  and  the  University 
Library  supply  all  the  material  needed  for  research  work  and 
historical  study. 


ft 


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405  Hilgard  Avenue,  Los  Angeles,  CA  90024-1388 

Return  this  material  to  the  library 

from  which  it  was  borrowed. 


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